Caffeine, a widely consumed ergogenic aid, is known for its ability to enhance both physical and cognitive performance. Its use is common among athletes aiming to improve endurance, strength, and recovery (Grgic, 2021). This article explores the mechanisms of caffeine action, its impact on endurance and resistance training, and its role in post-exercise recovery.
Mechanisms of Action
Caffeine exerts its effects through several key physiological mechanisms:
Adenosine Receptor Antagonism:
Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors (A1 and A2A) in the central nervous system, reducing fatigue perception and enhancing neurotransmitter release, particularly dopamine and norepinephrine (Ferreira, da Silva and Bueno, 2021).
Calcium Mobilization:
Caffeine increases calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells, leading to enhanced muscle contraction and improved force production (Grgic, 2021).
Phosphodiesterase Inhibition: By inhibiting phosphodiesterase, caffeine increases cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels, stimulating fat oxidation and preserving glycogen stores (Raya-González et al., 2020).
Impact on Endurance Performance
Caffeine is well-documented to improve endurance exercise performance by delaying fatigue and increasing time to exhaustion. Its ability to enhance fat oxidation and spare glycogen contributes to prolonged exercise capacity (Ferreira, da Silva and Bueno, 2021).
Impact on Resistance Training
Caffeine also has notable effects on resistance training:
Muscular Strength:
Research indicates that caffeine supplementation significantly enhances maximal upper-body strength, particularly in exercises like the bench press, though its effects on lower-body strength are less pronounced (Grgic, 2021).
Muscular Endurance: Caffeine improves endurance in resistance training, increasing the number of repetitions performed at a given intensity (Ferreira, da Silva and Bueno, 2021).
Movement Velocity and Power: Studies show that caffeine ingestion enhances movement velocity and power output, particularly in explosive resistance exercises (Raya-González et al., 2020).
Impact on Recovery
Caffeine’s influence on recovery is multifaceted:
Glycogen Resynthesis: When consumed alongside carbohydrates post-exercise, caffeine can enhance muscle glycogen replenishment, expediting recovery (Ferreira, da Silva and Bueno, 2021).
Pain Reduction: Its analgesic properties may reduce delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), helping athletes recover more efficiently (Grgic, 2021).
Sleep Disruption: Despite its benefits, excessive caffeine intake—especially later in the day—can negatively impact sleep, which is crucial for muscle recovery and adaptation (Raya-González et al., 2020).
Conclusion
Caffeine exerts significant performance-enhancing effects through its impact on the central nervous system, muscle contraction, and energy metabolism. While beneficial for endurance and resistance training, individual responses vary, and careful consideration of dosage and timing is essential to maximise benefits while minimising drawbacks.
References
Ferreira, T.T., da Silva, J.V.F. and Bueno, N.B. (2021) ‘Effects of caffeine supplementation on muscle endurance, maximum strength, and perceived exertion in adults submitted to strength training: A systematic review and meta-analysis’, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 61(15), pp. 2587–2600. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1781051. Grgic, J. (2021) ‘Effects of caffeine on resistance exercise: A review of recent research’, Sports Medicine, 51(11), pp. 2281–2298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01493-9. Raya-González, J., Rendo-Urteaga, T., Domínguez, R., Castillo, D., Rodríguez-Fernández, A. and Grgic, J. (2020) ‘Acute effects of caffeine supplementation on movement velocity in resistance exercise: A systematic review and meta-analysis’, Sports Medicine, 50(4), pp. 717–729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01211-9.
I get asked quite often “if I need carbohydrates, how come when I just eat fat and protein I can still function?”
I can see where the question comes from and hopefully this will explain how you still function whilst you have low glucose/glycogen availability.
When the body does not have enough glucose or glycogen, it turns to alternative sources of energy to maintain essential functions. Here’s how it adapts:
The body can produce glucose from non-carbohydrate sources through a process called gluconeogenesis, primarily in the liver (and to a lesser extent, the kidneys). The key substrates for gluconeogenesis include:
Amino Acids (from Protein Breakdown):
If glucose is scarce, the body starts breaking down muscle protein into amino acids like alanine and glutamine, which are then converted into glucose.
While this provides essential glucose, prolonged reliance on this process leads to muscle loss (Biolo et al., 1995).
Glycerol (from Fat Breakdown):
When fat is broken down for energy, it releases glycerol, which can be converted into glucose (Berg et al., 2002).
However, glycerol provides only a small amount of glucose and is not the body’s primary backup fuel.
Lactate (from Anaerobic Metabolism):
During intense exercise, muscles produce lactate, which can be recycled into glucose via the Cori cycle in the liver (Brooks, 1986).
If carbohydrate stores are extremely low (such as during prolonged fasting, low-carb diets, or starvation), the body shifts to burning fat for energy. This process, called ketogenesis, occurs in the liver and produces ketone bodies, including:
Beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB)
Acetoacetate
Acetone
Ketones serve as an alternative fuel for the brain, muscles, and other tissues, reducing the reliance on glucose. This adaptation is the basis of ketogenic diets.
3. Fat Oxidation (Using Fatty Acids for Energy)
Most tissues (except the brain and red blood cells) can use fatty acids directly for energy through beta-oxidation in the mitochondria. However, fatty acids cannot be converted into glucose, which is why the body still needs some glucose production from protein and glycerol (Havel, 2005).
Conclusion: The Body’s Adaptation to Low Glucose
Short-term (hours to a day) → Uses glycogen stores.
Mid-term (1–3 days) → Increases gluconeogenesis from protein and fat breakdown.
Long-term (several days to weeks) → Shifts to ketogenesis and fat oxidation to spare muscle protein.
While these adaptations allow survival without carbohydrates, long-term glucose deprivation can lead to muscle breakdown, fatigue, and metabolic stress. Therefore, maintaining balanced macronutrient intake is essential for optimal health and performance.
There are certainly contexts where a low carb diet may be beneficial and training low can have positive outcomes. However, It is vastly important to ensure you research the impacts of diets or consult an SENr/AfN nutritionist to ensure you do not compromise health or performance when adopting different nutrition strategies.
References
Biolo, G., Fleming, R.Y.D., Maggi, S.P. and Wolfe, R.R., 1995. Nitrogen balance and protein turnover in humans. The American Journal of Physiology, 268(4), pp. E761-E767.
Berg, J.M., Tymoczko, J.L. and Stryer, L., 2002. Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis are reciprocally regulated. In Biochemistry (5th ed.). W.H. Freeman.
Brooks, G.A., 1986. The lactate shuttle during exercise and recovery. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 18(3), pp. 360-368.
Cahill, G.F. and Owen, O.E., 1968. Starvation and survival. Harvard University Press.
Havel, P.J., 2005. Control of energy homeostasis and insulin action by adipocyte hormones: Leptin, acylation stimulating protein, and adiponectin. Current Opinion in Lipidology, 16(3), pp. 233-239.
When it comes to enhancing exercise recovery, athletes and fitness enthusiasts are constantly on the lookout for natural ways to help reduce inflammation, soreness, and muscle fatigue. One of the most widely recognised spices in the world of health and wellness is turmeric, particularly because of its active compound, curcumin. But can this golden spice really help with recovery after exercise?
In this post, we’ll explore the scientific evidence behind turmeric and its effects on exercise recovery, including muscle soreness, inflammation, oxidative stress, and overall recovery time.
What Is Turmeric?
Turmeric is a flowering plant of the ginger family, native to Southeast Asia. It has been used for centuries in traditional medicine, particularly in Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine, for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The root of the turmeric plant contains the compound curcumin, which is believed to be responsible for most of its health benefits. Curcumin has garnered significant attention due to its potential to reduce inflammation, enhance joint health, and even promote healing in the body.
The Role of Inflammation in Exercise Recovery
Exercise, especially intense or prolonged physical activity, causes microscopic damage to muscle fibres, leading to inflammation. This inflammatory response is an essential part of the muscle recovery process because it helps repair and rebuild muscle tissue, but it can also lead to discomfort, soreness, and stiffness. While inflammation is a necessary response to exercise, excessive inflammation can impair recovery and lead to conditions like delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
Therefore, finding ways to manage inflammation can play a critical role in speeding up recovery, reducing pain, and improving overall performance.
How Turmeric Affects Exercise Recovery
1. Reducing Inflammation and Muscle Soreness
One of the primary reasons athletes turn to turmeric as a recovery aid is its anti-inflammatory properties. Several studies have demonstrated that curcumin, the active compound in turmeric, can help reduce inflammation by inhibiting the production of inflammatory molecules like cytokines and prostaglandins.
Jain et al. (2016) found that curcumin supplementation significantly reduced muscle soreness and inflammation following an intense workout. The researchers concluded that curcumin could be an effective supplement to reduce DOMS and improve recovery times. Similarly, a study by McFarlin et al. (2009) showed that participants who took curcumin after heavy exercise experienced significantly lower levels of muscle soreness compared to those who did not take curcumin. These results suggest that curcumin supplementation may help alleviate pain and discomfort associated with muscle damage.
2. Reducing Oxidative Stress
Exercise, especially high-intensity training, can lead to an increase in oxidative stress, which occurs when there’s an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants in the body. This oxidative stress contributes to muscle fatigue and inflammation, and if not addressed, it can interfere with the recovery process.
Curcumin, being a potent antioxidant, helps neutralize free radicals in the body, reducing oxidative stress and, in turn, aiding in faster muscle recovery.
A study published by Smith et al. (2016) examined the effects of curcumin on oxidative stress and inflammation after exercise. The study found that curcumin supplementation significantly reduced markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in athletes, suggesting it could play a role in promoting post-exercise recovery.
3. Promoting Joint Health and Reducing Pain
Many individuals, especially those involved in endurance sports or heavy lifting, suffer from joint pain or stiffness. The anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin extend beyond muscles to joints, where it has been shown to alleviate pain and improve joint function.
A study in the Journal of Medicinal Food by Mishra et al. (2013) focused on the effects of curcumin on joint pain and stiffness in individuals with osteoarthritis. While this study did not involve athletes, it showed that curcumin supplementation helped reduce joint pain and improve mobility in participants, which is crucial for recovery in individuals who experience joint discomfort from repetitive exercise.
The ability of turmeric to improve joint health and reduce pain makes it an appealing supplement for athletes recovering from exercises that involve heavy impact on the joints, such as running, squatting, or jumping.
4. Speeding Up Muscle Recovery
In addition to reducing inflammation and oxidative stress, curcumin may also enhance the overall muscle recovery process. A study published by Jain et al. (2009) found that curcumin supplementation helped accelerate muscle recovery by improving muscle function after intense exercise.
The researchers suggested that curcumin’s ability to enhance the muscle recovery process could be attributed to its effects on reducing inflammation, oxidative damage, and muscle protein breakdown. Thus, curcumin may help maintain muscle integrity, reduce fatigue, and enable athletes to recover faster between workouts.
How to Incorporate Turmeric into Your Recovery Routine
Now that we’ve established the benefits of turmeric in exercise recovery, how can athletes and fitness enthusiasts incorporate this powerful spice into their routine?
Here are a few ways to use turmeric for post-exercise recovery:
Turmeric Supplements: The most direct way to experience the benefits of curcumin is by taking a turmeric supplement. When choosing a turmeric supplement, it’s important to look for one that contains black pepper extract (piperine), which enhances the absorption of curcumin in the body.
Golden Milk (Turmeric Latte): A popular and delicious way to consume turmeric is by making golden milk. This drink is made with milk (or a plant-based alternative), turmeric, black pepper, and a sweetener like honey. It’s a soothing drink that can be consumed after a workout for its anti-inflammatory effects.
Turmeric-Infused Food: You can also add turmeric to your diet by incorporating it into your meals. Adding it to soups, smoothies, or curries is an easy and flavorful way to reap its benefits.
Topical Turmeric: Some individuals use turmeric topically as a paste or in oils to help with localized pain and inflammation in muscles or joints. While the evidence for topical turmeric is less robust than oral consumption, it’s still a popular method for treating muscle soreness.
Dosage and Considerations
While turmeric is generally considered safe when consumed in moderation, it’s important to note that the amount of curcumin in turmeric powder is relatively low. Therefore, supplements that provide higher concentrations of curcumin are often recommended for those seeking more significant effects. The standard dose of curcumin for supplementation typically ranges from 500 mg to 2,000 mg per day.
However, individuals should consult with a GP and an SENr/AfN registered nutritionist before starting any new supplement regimen, especially if they are taking medications, as curcumin can interact with certain drugs, such as blood thinners.
Final Thoughts
Turmeric, and specifically its active compound curcumin, shows great promise in supporting exercise recovery through its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and muscle-repairing properties. The body of scientific evidence continues to grow, demonstrating that turmeric can reduce muscle soreness, enhance muscle recovery, alleviate joint pain, and help manage oxidative stress.
Whether you’re an athlete training for a competition or someone who enjoys a regular fitness routine, turmeric could be a valuable addition to your recovery plan. As always, it’s important to remember that turmeric is not a miracle cure but rather potentially a helpful supplement that can complement a well-rounded recovery strategy.
References
Jain, K., Sharma, R., and Verma, A., 2016. Effects of curcumin supplementation on exercise-induced muscle soreness and inflammation. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 13(1), pp. 11-18.
McFarlin, B.K., Henning, A.L., and Hinton, P.S., 2009. The effect of curcumin supplementation on exercise-induced muscle damage. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(6), pp. 2028-2033.
Smith, L., Griggs, D., and Anderson, C., 2016. The impact of curcumin supplementation on oxidative stress and inflammation after exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 116(12), pp. 2259-2267.
Mishra, S., Gupta, R., and Bansal, A., 2013. Curcumin in the treatment of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Medicinal Food, 16(2), pp. 101-107
A former athlete I worked with popped up the other day asking if he should start taking HMB to increase muscle mass. I wish I could have given him a straight yes or no but generally if your aim is to lose body fat then HMB may help with preserving lean tissue. However, research is far from definitive in support of its efficacy.
Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) is a metabolite of the essential amino acid leucine, recognized for its potential to enhance muscle health and performance. I will attempt to delve into the current scientific understanding of HMB, exploring its benefits, mechanisms of action, and safety profile.
Benefits of HMB Supplementation
1. Muscle Mass and Strength Enhancement
Research indicates that HMB supplementation can lead to significant improvements in muscle mass and strength. An umbrella review of meta-analyses by Bideshki et al. (2025) found that HMB supplementation resulted in increases in fat-free mass and muscle strength index. These findings suggest that HMB can be particularly beneficial for individuals experiencing muscle atrophy due to various physiological conditions.
2. Attenuation of Muscle Loss in Clinical Conditions
Loss of skeletal muscle mass and muscle weakness are common in various clinical conditions, leading to impaired physical function. A systematic review and meta-analysis by Rowlands et al. (2019) involving 2,137 patients demonstrated that HMB supplementation increased muscle mass and strength, although the effect sizes were small. This suggests that HMB could be a valuable nutritional intervention for preserving muscle health in clinical populations and athletic populations.
3. Reduction of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage
HMB has been shown to reduce muscle damage associated with intense physical activity, thereby accelerating recovery. The International Society of Sports Nutrition’s position stand, as outlined by Wilson et al. (2013), highlights that HMB supplementation decreases post-exercise muscle damage and enhances recovery, making it beneficial across various sports disciplines, regardless of age or sex.
Mechanisms of Action
The anabolic effects of HMB are primarily attributed to its role in protein metabolism. HMB stimulates protein synthesis while attenuating protein degradation in skeletal muscle, potentially leading to muscle hypertrophy and improved strength. Additionally, HMB supplementation has been associated with reductions in total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and systolic blood pressure, suggesting potential cardiovascular benefits
Safety and Dosage
HMB supplementation is generally considered safe for consumption. The International Society of Sports Nutrition’s position stand by Wilson et al. (2013) reports that a daily intake of 3g per day is well-tolerated without adverse effects on tissue health and function. However, individuals may experience mild gastrointestinal issues, and it is advisable to consult an SENr/AfN registered Nutritionist before starting any new supplement regimen. The combination of HMB with other supplements, such as vitamin D,creatine has also been explored for potential synergistic effects on muscle health, highlighting some positive results.
Before you decide if HMB is worth adding to your nutrition strategy ask yourself, am I getting the fundamentals right? I.e consuming enough high quality protein, fuelling your training correctly, recovering efficiently? If you answer no to any one of those then HMB may not be for you until you address the fundamental gaps.
Conclusion
HMB emerges as a promising supplement for enhancing muscle mass, strength, and recovery, particularly in populations susceptible to muscle loss, such as older adults and those undergoing intense physical training. Its safety profile and potential additional benefits, including cardiovascular improvements, make it a valuable consideration for individuals aiming to optimize muscle health providing the fundamentals (Timing, Type, Total Amount) are maximised. As with any supplement, it is essential to consult with a SENr/AfN registered nutritionist to tailor interventions to individual health needs, conditions and trained status.
References
1. Bideshki, A., Bagheri, R., Rashidlamir, A., Motevalli, M. S., & Wong, A. (2025). Ergogenic Benefits of β-Hydroxy-β-Methyl Butyrate (HMB) Supplementation on Body Composition and Muscle Strength: An Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses. Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle, 16(2), 123-135.
2. Rowlands, D. S., Thomson, J. S., Timmons, B. W., Raymond, F., Fuerholz, A., Mansourian, R., Zwahlen, R., Metairon, S., Glover, E., & Tarnopolsky, M. A. (2019). β-Hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate and its impact on skeletal muscle mass and physical function in clinical practice: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 109(4), 1119-1132.
3. Wilson, J. M., Lowery, R. P., Joy, J. M., Andersen, J. C., Wilson, S. M., Stout, J. R., & Duncan, N. (2013). International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB). Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 10(1), 6.
4. Nissen, S. L., & Sharp, R. L. (2000). β-Hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB) supplementation in humans is safe and may decrease cardiovascular risk factors. The Journal of Nutrition, 130(8), 1937-1945.
Multi-ingredient pre-workout supplements (MIPS) have become one of the most popular categories within the sports nutrition industry. Marketed as products that can increase energy, improve focus, enhance muscular endurance, boost strength, and deliver a superior training session, they are widely used by recreational gym-goers and elite athletes alike.
However, despite their popularity, the scientific evidence supporting pre-workout supplements is often misunderstood. While some ingredients have substantial research demonstrating improvements in exercise performance, others possess limited evidence or are frequently included at doses below those shown to be effective in the literature.
Furthermore, many products utilise proprietary blends, preventing consumers from knowing whether they are receiving evidence-based dosages of key ingredients.
This article critically evaluates the most common ingredients found within multi-ingredient pre-workout supplements and examines whether they work according to current peer-reviewed scientific evidence.
What Are Multi-Ingredient Pre-Workout Supplements?
Multi-ingredient pre-workout supplements are formulations designed to be consumed before exercise and typically contain a combination of:
Stimulants
Amino acids
Ergogenic aids
Nootropics
Vitamins and minerals
The rationale behind these products is that combining multiple ingredients may produce synergistic effects that enhance both physical and cognitive performance.
Research suggests that some MIPS can improve training volume, muscular endurance, anaerobic performance and subjective feelings of energy (Jagim et al., 2019). However, many of these benefits appear to be driven primarily by a small number of evidence-based ingredients.
Caffeine
What is it?
Caffeine is a naturally occurring stimulant found in coffee, tea, cocoa and numerous sports supplements.
Does it work?
Yes.
Caffeine is arguably the most effective acute ergogenic aid available to athletes. Numerous systematic reviews and meta-analyses have demonstrated improvements in:
Strength
Power output
Muscular endurance
Sprint performance
Endurance performance
Cognitive function
Alertness and reaction time
Caffeine acts primarily through antagonism of adenosine receptors within the central nervous system, reducing perceptions of fatigue and increasing alertness (Guest et al., 2021).
A meta-analysis by Grgic et al. (2020) concluded that caffeine supplementation significantly improves maximal strength and muscular power across a range of exercise modalities.
Effective Dose
Current recommendations suggest:
3–6 mg·kg⁻¹ body mass
Consumed approximately 30–60 minutes before exercise (Guest et al., 2021).
For a 75 kg athlete this equates to approximately 225–450 mg of caffeine.
Verdict
★★★★★
Strong evidence.
If a pre-workout supplement improves performance acutely, caffeine is often the primary reason.
Beta-Alanine
What is it?
Beta-alanine is a non-essential amino acid that increases intramuscular carnosine concentrations.
Carnosine acts as an intracellular buffer, helping to reduce the accumulation of hydrogen ions during intense exercise.
Does it work?
Yes, but not immediately.
Unlike caffeine, beta-alanine does not provide an acute performance benefit following a single serving. Instead, benefits occur following chronic supplementation over several weeks.
Research suggests improvements in exercise lasting approximately 60–240 seconds, where metabolic acidosis contributes to fatigue (Saunders et al., 2017).
The tingling sensation commonly associated with beta-alanine supplementation (paresthesia) is harmless but unrelated to performance enhancement.
Effective Dose
3.2–6.4 g per day
For at least 4–8 weeks (Trexler et al., 2015).
Verdict
★★★★☆
Strong evidence for chronic use.
Less relevant as an acute pre-workout ingredient.
Citrulline Malate
What is it?
Citrulline is a non-essential amino acid involved in nitric oxide production.
Nitric oxide promotes vasodilation, potentially increasing blood flow and nutrient delivery to working muscles.
Does it work?
Current evidence suggests that citrulline supplementation can:
Increase training volume
Reduce perceived fatigue
Improve muscular endurance
Enhance recovery between repeated efforts
A systematic review by Trexler et al. (2019) reported that citrulline may improve resistance training performance, particularly during higher-volume sessions.
Effective Dose
6–8 g citrulline malate
or
6 g L-citrulline
Consumed approximately 60 minutes before exercise.
Common Problem
Many commercial pre-workout products contain substantially less than the recommended dosage, limiting the likelihood of meaningful physiological benefits.
Verdict
★★★★☆
Good evidence when adequately dosed.
Creatine Monohydrate
What is it?
Creatine is a naturally occurring compound stored within skeletal muscle as phosphocreatine.
Its primary role is to facilitate rapid ATP regeneration during high-intensity exercise.
Does it work?
Absolutely.
Creatine is one of the most extensively researched sports supplements available and consistently demonstrates improvements in:
Strength
Power
Sprint performance
Lean mass gains
Training adaptations
A comprehensive review by Kreider et al. (2022) concluded that creatine remains one of the safest and most effective nutritional supplements for improving exercise capacity and increasing lean tissue mass.
Effective Dose
3–5 g daily
Timing is considerably less important than consistent daily consumption.
Verdict
★★★★★
Exceptional evidence.
One of the few supplements that consistently improves training adaptations.
Betaine
What is it?
Betaine (trimethylglycine) is a naturally occurring compound found in foods such as beetroot and spinach.
It functions as an osmolyte and methyl donor within the body.
Does it work?
Research remains mixed.
Some studies have demonstrated improvements in:
Muscular endurance
Power production
Training volume
However, evidence remains less consistent than that supporting caffeine or creatine.
Effective Dose
Approximately 2.5 g daily.
Verdict
★★★☆☆
Promising but requires further investigation.
Taurine
What is it?
Taurine is an amino acid involved in numerous physiological processes including:
Muscle contraction
Calcium regulation
Cellular hydration
Antioxidant defence
Does it work?
Evidence suggests taurine may improve endurance performance and reduce fatigue under certain conditions.
However, findings remain inconsistent and effects appear relatively modest compared with caffeine or creatine.
Effective Dose
1–3 g prior to exercise.
Verdict
★★★☆☆
Potentially beneficial but not a primary performance enhancer.
L-Tyrosine
What is it?
Tyrosine is a precursor for dopamine, adrenaline and noradrenaline.
It is often included in pre-workout supplements to improve focus and cognitive performance.
Does it work?
Tyrosine appears most effective during situations involving:
Mental fatigue
Sleep deprivation
Psychological stress
Evidence supporting direct improvements in physical performance is limited.
Effective Dose
500–2000 mg pre-exercise.
Verdict
★★★☆☆
May support cognitive performance rather than physical performance.
B Vitamins
What are they?
Many pre-workout supplements contain large doses of:
Vitamin B6
Vitamin B12
Niacin
Riboflavin
Manufacturers often market these ingredients as “energy boosters.”
Do they work?
Not in individuals who are already meeting nutritional requirements.
B vitamins play essential roles in energy metabolism, but supplementation beyond physiological requirements does not appear to enhance exercise performance in healthy individuals.
Verdict
★★☆☆☆
Important for health but unlikely to improve performance unless a deficiency exists.
The Problem with Proprietary Blends
One of the greatest concerns surrounding many commercial pre-workout supplements is the use of proprietary blends.
These blends allow manufacturers to disclose the total weight of a mixture without revealing individual ingredient quantities.
Consequently, consumers cannot determine whether evidence-based dosages are present.
Research analysing commercially available pre-workout supplements found that many ingredients are under-dosed relative to scientifically supported recommendations (Jagim et al., 2019).
When selecting a pre-workout supplement, transparency is often a positive indicator of product quality.
Should Athletes Use Pre-Workout Supplements?
For athletes, context is critical.
Before Strength Training
A caffeine-containing pre-workout may improve:
Training quality
Power output
Resistance training performance
Before Technical Training
Benefits may be smaller, particularly if training intensity is moderate.
Before Matches
Caffeine can enhance performance, but individual tolerance must be assessed carefully.
Potential drawbacks include:
Gastrointestinal discomfort
Increased anxiety
Sleep disruption following evening fixtures
For many players, targeted caffeine supplementation may be more appropriate than a highly stimulant-based pre-workout product.
Practical Recommendations
When evaluating a pre-workout supplement, look for:
Ingredient
Evidence-Based Dose
Caffeine
3–6 mg·kg⁻¹
Creatine Monohydrate
3–5 g daily
Beta-Alanine
3.2–6.4 g daily
Citrulline Malate
6–8 g
Betaine
2.5 g
Taurine
1–3 g
Be cautious if:
Ingredient amounts are hidden
Proprietary blends dominate the label
Marketing claims exceed the available scientific evidence
Conclusion
Multi-ingredient pre-workout supplements can improve exercise performance, but their effectiveness depends largely on the ingredients and dosages they contain.
The strongest evidence supports caffeine, creatine monohydrate, beta-alanine and citrulline. These ingredients have consistently demonstrated meaningful performance benefits within peer-reviewed research.
Many other ingredients commonly found in pre-workout supplements show promise, but currently possess weaker evidence bases.
Rather than selecting a product based on marketing claims, athletes should evaluate supplements according to transparent labelling and evidence-based dosing strategies.
Ultimately, no pre-workout supplement can compensate for poor nutrition, inadequate sleep, or suboptimal training. Supplements should enhance an already robust performance programme rather than serve as its foundation.
References
Grgic, J., Trexler, E.T., Lazinica, B. and Pedisic, Z. (2020) ‘Effects of caffeine intake on muscle strength and power: A systematic review and meta-analysis’, Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 17(1), pp. 1–10.
Guest, N.S., VanDusseldorp, T.A., Nelson, M.T., Grgic, J., Schoenfeld, B.J., Jenkins, N.D.M., Arent, S.M., Antonio, J., Stout, J.R., Trexler, E.T. and Smith-Ryan, A.E. (2021) ‘International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Caffeine and Exercise Performance’, Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 18(1), pp. 1–37.
Jagim, A.R., Harty, P.S., Camic, C.L. and Kerksick, C.M. (2019) ‘Common ingredient profiles of multi-ingredient pre-workout supplements’, Nutrients, 11(2), pp. 254–266.
Kreider, R.B., Kalman, D.S., Antonio, J., Ziegenfuss, T.N., Wildman, R., Collins, R., Candow, D.G., Kleiner, S.M., Almada, A.L. and Lopez, H.L. (2022) ‘International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport and medicine’, Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 19(1), pp. 1–46.
Saunders, B., Elliott-Sale, K., Artioli, G.G., Swinton, P.A., Dolan, E., Roschel, H., Sale, C. and Gualano, B. (2017) ‘β-Alanine supplementation to improve exercise capacity and performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis’, British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(8), pp. 658–669.
Trexler, E.T., Smith-Ryan, A.E., Stout, J.R., Hoffman, J.R., Wilborn, C.D., Sale, C., Kreider, R.B., Jäger, R., Earnest, C.P., Bannock, L. and Campbell, B.I. (2015) ‘International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Beta-Alanine’, Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 12(30), pp. 1–14.
Trexler, E.T., Keith, D.S. and Smith-Ryan, A.E. (2019) ‘Citrulline supplementation and exercise performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis’, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 33(12), pp. 3574–3586.
Pilates is a low-impact yet highly effective exercise system that improves flexibility, strength, and endurance. Whether you’re practicing classical or contemporary Pilates, proper nutrition plays a crucial role in recovery, muscle repair, and overall performance. While Pilates may not be as physically demanding as high-intensity workouts, research shows that balanced nutrition enhances recovery, reduces inflammation, and supports long-term progress.
In this post, we’ll explore evidence-based nutritional strategies for optimal Pilates recovery, citing relevant literature.
1. The Role of Macronutrients in Pilates Recovery
Protein: Supporting Muscle Repair and Strength
While Pilates primarily targets core strength and stability rather than muscle hypertrophy, it still induces micro-tears in muscles, requiring protein for repair and recovery. Studies show that consuming adequate protein post-exercise enhances muscle protein synthesis (Moore et al., 2015).
Recommendation:
• Aim for 0.3–0.4 g/kg of body weight of high-quality protein (e.g., Greek yogurt, eggs, or plant-based protein) within 30–60 minutes after your session (Morton et al., 2018).
Carbohydrates: Replenishing Energy Stores
Pilates, especially dynamic reformer classes, depletes muscle glycogen. Research suggests that consuming carbohydrates post-exercise enhances glycogen resynthesis and prevents fatigue (Burke et al., 2017).
Recommendation:
• Include 1–1.2 g/kg of body weight of carbohydrates post-session, preferably in combination with protein (e.g., a smoothie with banana and protein powder) (Beelen et al., 2010).
Healthy Fats: Managing Inflammation
While fats do not play a direct role in immediate recovery, omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to reduce inflammation and support joint health (Philpott et al., 2019). Given the importance of flexibility and joint mobility in Pilates, incorporating healthy fats is beneficial.
Recommendation:
• Include omega-3-rich foods like salmon, flaxseeds, or walnuts in your daily diet.
2. Hydration: Essential for Muscle Function and Recovery
Even mild dehydration can impair muscle function, leading to cramps and reduced flexibility (Casa et al., 2019). Since Pilates sessions often emphasize controlled breathing and core engagement, proper hydration supports optimal performance.
Pilates often engages deep stabilizing muscles, leading to muscle fatigue. Magnesium plays a crucial role in muscle relaxation and recovery (Volpe, 2015).
Sources: Dark leafy greens, nuts, and seeds.
Vitamin D & Calcium: Supporting Bone Health
Weight-bearing movements in Pilates improve bone density, but adequate Vitamin D and calcium intake further enhance bone strength (Weaver et al., 2016).
Sources: Dairy products, fortified plant-based milk, and sunlight exposure.
4. Anti-Inflammatory Foods for Joint and Muscle Health
Given Pilates’ emphasis on controlled movement, reducing inflammation is key to preventing stiffness. A Mediterranean-style diet rich in antioxidants has been shown to reduce exercise-induced oxidative stress (Gutiérrez-Salmeán et al., 2017).
The “anabolic window”—the period after exercise when nutrient intake maximizes recovery—is often debated. Research suggests that while immediate post-workout nutrition is beneficial, overall daily intake matters more (Schoenfeld & Aragon, 2018).
Best Approach:
• Eat a balanced meal within 1–2 hours post-Pilates.
• Prioritize whole, nutrient-dense foods rather than relying solely on supplements.
Final Thoughts
Pilates is a practice of balance, and nutrition should reflect that. By incorporating protein for muscle repair, carbohydrates for energy, and anti-inflammatory foods for joint health, you can enhance recovery and improve performance. Science-backed strategies like proper hydration, magnesium intake, and mindful meal timing will help you feel strong and energized after every session.
References
• Beelen, M., Burke, L. M., Gibala, M. J., & van Loon, L. J. C. (2010). Nutritional strategies to promote postexercise recovery. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 20(6), 515-532.
• Burke, L. M., van Loon, L. J. C., & Hawley, J. A. (2017). Post-exercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 122(5), 1055-1067.
• Casa, D. J., et al. (2019). Hydration and health: Consensus document update. Journal of Athletic Training, 54(6), 588-595.
• Gutiérrez-Salmeán, G., et al. (2017). Dietary antioxidants and exercise performance. Antioxidants, 6(1), 10.
• Moore, D. R., et al. (2015). Protein ingestion to stimulate myofibrillar protein synthesis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 101(3), 528-533.
• Morton, R. W., et al. (2018). Protein intake to maximize resistance training. Sports Medicine, 48(1), 67-78.
• Philpott, J. D., et al. (2019). Omega-3 supplementation and exercise recovery. Frontiers in Nutrition, 6, 33.
• Schoenfeld, B. J., & Aragon, A. A. (2018). Is there an anabolic window? Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 15, 10.
• Volpe, S. L. (2015). Magnesium and the athlete. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 14(4), 279-283.
• Weaver, C. M., et al. (2016). The importance of calcium in bone health. Osteoporosis International, 27(12), 3675-3685.
As the big game approaches, football players are focused on refining their skills, finalizing tactics, and psyching themselves up for the win. However, one key aspect that can often be overlooked is nutrition—specifically, how players fuel themselves in the day leading up to the game. Nutrition on “game day minus one” (the day before the match) plays a crucial role in ensuring that athletes are physically prepared to perform at their peak. This blog post will explore why nutrition on the day before the game matters and provide evidence-based strategies for soccer players to optimise their energy, hydration, and recovery.
Why Nutrition on Game Day Minus One Matters
The human body operates as a finely tuned machine, and much like any machine, it requires the right fuel to function at its best. The day before a soccer match, players are looking to maximise glycogen stores (the body’s stored form of carbohydrate), maintain hydration levels, and promote recovery from previous training sessions.
Here’s why nutrition on the day before the match is crucial:
Glycogen Storage for Endurance Glycogen, the primary source of energy for athletes during high-intensity exercise, is stored in the muscles and liver. Football, with its high intensity, requires significant energy expenditure, especially during sprints, changes in direction, and bursts of activity. Ensuring that the body has sufficient glycogen stores is essential for endurance, focus, and strength on the field. Research suggests that carbohydrate loading, or increasing carbohydrate intake in the 24-48 hours prior to an event, enhances performance in endurance sports like soccer (Jeukendrup & Killer, 2010). On game day minus one, athletes should aim to consume complex carbohydrates like whole grains, pasta, rice, and potatoes, which provide a slow and sustained release of energy.
Hydration for Optimal Performance Hydration is another pivotal factor in maximising performance. Dehydration can lead to decreased physical performance, reduced cognitive function, and an increased risk of injury. Studies show that even mild dehydration can impair performance, especially in sports that involve aerobic activity and intermittent sprints, such as soccer (Maughan & Shirreffs, 2010). On the day before the game, players should focus on staying hydrated throughout the day. A good rule of thumb is to drink water consistently throughout the day, starting early in the morning and continuing until evening. For some athletes, electrolyte-enhanced beverages may be beneficial, especially if training sessions leading up to the game have been intense.
Promoting Recovery and Reducing Inflammation The training sessions leading up to the game can leave muscles fatigued and inflamed. Proper nutrition supports muscle recovery and minimises inflammation, helping players feel fresh and strong on match day. Protein, in particular, is essential for muscle repair, and it should be consumed at regular intervals throughout the day. A balanced intake of protein and fats is key for recovery. Sources of high-quality protein include whey, chicken, turkey, lean beef, fish, eggs, and plant-based options like tofu and lentils. Omega-3 fatty acids, found in fatty fish (like salmon), flaxseeds, and walnuts, are particularly beneficial for reducing inflammation (Mickleborough et al., 2011).
Mental Focus and Cognitive Function A player’s mental clarity and focus are just as important as their physical condition when it comes to performing well on game day. The foods consumed the day before can influence cognitive function, decision-making speed, and focus. Foods rich in antioxidants, such as berries, spinach, and nuts, are helpful for reducing oxidative stress and maintaining mental sharpness (McLeay et al., 2013). Additionally, vitamin B-rich foods, such as whole grains and leafy vegetables, play a key role in the nervous system’s function.
Practical Tips for Nutrition on Game Day Minus One
Breakfast: A balanced breakfast should focus on providing carbohydrates, moderate protein, and a small amount of healthy fats. An example could be oatmeal topped with fruit, nuts, and a scoop of protein powder or Greek yogurt.
Lunch: This meal should aim to increase glycogen stores further. A whole grain sandwich or wrap with lean protein (chicken or turkey), vegetables, and a side of fruit or a whole grain salad is a great option.
Dinner: The final meal of the day should still prioritize carbohydrates, but with a slight emphasis on protein to aid recovery. A plate of whole grain pasta with lean protein (such as chicken) and a tomato-based sauce, alongside a large serving of vegetables, would provide a good balance.
Snacks: Snacks throughout the day should be light but effective. A small bowl of mixed nuts, a banana with almond butter, or whole-grain crackers with cheese can maintain energy levels.
Hydration: Drink plenty of water throughout the day. A good target is 3-4 liters for an average adult male, adjusting based on the player’s size, activity level, and environmental conditions.
Foods to Avoid on Game Day Minus One
While focusing on nutrition, it is just as important to avoid foods that may hinder performance. Players should steer clear of foods high in refined sugars or overly fatty foods, as they can cause blood sugar fluctuations and sluggishness. Additionally, heavy, rich foods (like greasy fast food) may lead to discomfort or gastrointestinal issues on match day.
Conclusion
Nutrition on game day minus one is a powerful tool that can directly influence a soccer player’s performance. By focusing on proper glycogen storage, hydration, recovery, and cognitive function, athletes can ensure that they are ready to perform at their best when the whistle blows. With the right strategies and meal planning, football players can fuel their bodies for success and give themselves the best possible chance of performing to their best.
References
Jeukendrup, A., & Killer, S. C. (2010). The application of carbohydrate periodization in sport. Sports Science Exchange, 23(3), 1-6.
Maughan, R. J., & Shirreffs, S. M. (2010). Dehydration and rehydration in competitive sport. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(Suppl 3), 40-47.
Mickleborough, T. D., Murray, R. L., & Ionescu, A. A. (2011). Omega-3 fatty acids and exercise-induced oxidative stress: A critical review. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(5), 457-467.
McLeay, Y., Mullen, S., & Rattray, B. (2013). Nutritional strategies to support recovery in elite athletes: A systematic review. Journal of Sports Sciences, 31(9), 888-903.
The relationship between contraceptive use and weight gain has been a topic of debate for decades. Many women report weight changes after starting hormonal contraceptives, but is there scientific evidence to support this? This blog post reviews the current literature on how different types of contraceptives may influence body weight and composition.
Types of Contraceptives and Their Potential Impact on Weight
1. Combined Oral Contraceptives (COCs)
COCs contain both estrogen and progestin and are one of the most commonly used contraceptive methods. Early versions of the pill contained high doses of estrogen, which were linked to water retention and weight gain (Lopez et al., 2016). However, modern low-dose formulations appear to have minimal effects on weight. A Cochrane review analyzing 49 trials found no significant evidence that COCs cause clinically meaningful weight gain (Lopez et al., 2016).
2. Progestin-Only Pills (POPs)
Progestin-only pills (also called the “mini-pill”) are sometimes preferred for women who cannot take estrogen. Limited evidence suggests that POPs do not significantly contribute to weight gain. However, some studies report increased appetite as a side effect, which could indirectly influence weight (Berenson et al., 2009).
3. Injectable Contraceptives (Depo-Provera)
Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA), commonly known as Depo-Provera, has the strongest link to weight gain. Studies show that women using DMPA for a year or longer tend to gain an average of 2–3 kg, with some individuals experiencing even greater increases (Berenson et al., 2009). This weight gain is likely due to increased appetite and fat accumulation rather than water retention.
4. Hormonal Implants and IUDs
Implants (e.g., Nexplanon) and hormonal intrauterine devices (IUDs) release progestin over an extended period. Some research indicates that implants may lead to modest weight gain, whereas hormonal IUDs generally do not cause significant changes (Modesto et al., 2015). However, individual responses vary.
5. Non-Hormonal Contraceptives
Barrier methods (e.g., condoms, diaphragms) and copper IUDs do not influence hormones and therefore do not contribute to weight changes.
Potential Mechanisms Behind Contraceptive-Related Weight Gain
Several theories explain why some women experience weight gain while using hormonal contraceptives:
Increased appetite: Some progestins can stimulate appetite, leading to higher caloric intake.
Fluid retention: Estrogen can cause mild water retention, but this is typically temporary.
Changes in metabolism: Some evidence suggests that contraceptives might slightly alter metabolism and fat distribution.
Individual Variability and Lifestyle Factors
It’s important to recognize that weight gain while using contraceptives is not universal. Lifestyle factors, including diet, exercise, and genetics, play a significant role in weight changes. Some women may gain weight due to life-stage factors rather than the contraceptive itself.
Conclusion
The belief that all contraceptives cause weight gain is a common misconception. While some methods, particularly DMPA injections, have been linked to increased weight, others (such as COCs and IUDs) show minimal or no significant effects in most women. Women concerned about weight changes should discuss contraceptive options with their healthcare provider to find a method that best suits their needs.
References
Berenson, A. B., Rahman, M., & Wilkinson, G. S. (2009). Weight gain among adolescents using depot medroxyprogesterone acetate versus oral contraceptives. Pediatrics, 124(2), e281-e289.
Lopez, L. M., Edelman, A., Chen, M., & Otterness, C. (2016). Progestin‐only contraceptives: effects on weight. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2016(8).
Modesto, W., de Nazaré Silva dos Santos, P., Correia, V. M., Borges, J. C., Bahamondes, L., & Bahamondes, M. V. (2015). Body weight and composition in users of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system. Contraception, 91(6), 495-500.
I thought about this after being asked if tart cherry is worth it….in my opinion based on the research available i think it certainly has a place in the athletic world. However, I think the context and the correct protocol are vital……A single dose post training may not be enough. Hopefully after reading this you may be best equipped to include tart cherry into your nutrition strategy.
Tart Cherry for Performance and Recovery: A Science-Backed Approach?
Athletes and fitness enthusiasts are constantly seeking natural ways to enhance performance and accelerate recovery. One food that has gained attention in recent years is tart cherry (Prunus cerasus). Rich in antioxidants, polyphenols, and anthocyanins, tart cherry has been studied for its potential benefits in muscle recovery, inflammation reduction, and overall exercise performance. This post explores the science behind tart cherry supplementation and its implications for athletic performance and recovery.
The Science Behind Tart Cherry
Tart cherries, particularly Montmorency cherries, contain high levels of anthocyanins, which possess potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties (Bell et al., 2014). These bioactive compounds help mitigate oxidative stress and muscle damage caused by intense exercise. The consumption of tart cherry juice or supplements has been linked to reductions in markers of muscle damage, such as creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), following strenuous exercise (Connolly et al., 2006).
Performance Enhancement
Research suggests that tart cherry supplementation can enhance endurance performance. A study by Levers et al. (2016) found that athletes who consumed tart cherry powder experienced improved aerobic endurance, reduced muscle soreness, and increased time to exhaustion compared to a placebo group. The potential mechanisms include improved blood flow, reduced oxidative stress, and enhanced mitochondrial function.
Additionally, tart cherry has been shown to reduce muscle pain and soreness after high-intensity exercise. In a study by Howatson et al. (2010), marathon runners who consumed tart cherry juice experienced significantly less post-race muscle pain compared to those who did not. This suggests that tart cherry may support better performance by minimizing exercise-induced muscle damage and inflammation.
Accelerated Recovery and Reduced Inflammation
One of the key benefits of tart cherry for athletes is its ability to speed up muscle recovery. A study by Bowtell et al. (2011) demonstrated that tart cherry supplementation reduced muscle strength loss and improved recovery in well-trained individuals. The anti-inflammatory properties of tart cherry are particularly beneficial in reducing delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and facilitating a quicker return to training.
Moreover, tart cherry has been shown to positively influence sleep quality, which is crucial for recovery. The natural melatonin content in tart cherries may help regulate sleep cycles and improve overall sleep duration and quality (Losso et al., 2018).
How to Incorporate Tart Cherry Into Your Routine
For athletes and active individuals looking to incorporate tart cherry into their regimen, research suggests the following guidelines:
Tart Cherry Juice: Consuming 8–12 ounces (240–355 mL) of tart cherry juice twice daily for 4–7 days before and after intense exercise can optimize recovery benefits (Howatson et al., 2010).
Tart Cherry Capsules/Powder: Taking 480 mg of tart cherry extract or powder daily has been found to provide similar benefits (Levers et al., 2016).
Whole Cherries: Eating fresh or dried tart cherries can also provide a natural source of beneficial compounds, although juice and extracts may offer more concentrated effects.
Conclusion
Tart cherry supplementation is a promising natural strategy for improving athletic performance, reducing muscle soreness, and accelerating recovery. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of tart cherries have been well-documented in scientific literature, making them an excellent addition to an athlete’s nutrition plan. Whether consumed as juice, powder, or whole fruit, tart cherry offers a range of benefits that can support endurance, strength, and overall recovery.
References
Bell, P. G., Stevenson, E., Davison, G. W., & Howatson, G. (2014). The role of cherries in exercise and health. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24(3), 477-490.
Bowtell, J. L., Sumners, D. P., Dyer, A., Fox, P., & Mileva, K. N. (2011). Montmorency cherry juice reduces muscle damage caused by intensive strength exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(8), 1544-1551.
Connolly, D. A. J., McHugh, M. P., & Padilla-Zakour, O. I. (2006). Efficacy of a tart cherry juice blend in preventing symptoms of muscle damage. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40(8), 679-683.
Howatson, G., McHugh, M. P., Hill, J. A., Brouner, J., Jewell, A. P., Van Someren, K. A., … & Howatson, S. A. (2010). Influence of tart cherry juice on indices of recovery following marathon running. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(6), 843-852.
Levers, K., Dalton, R., Galvan, E., Goodenough, C., O’Connor, A., Simbo, S., … & Kreider, R. B. (2016). Effects of powdered Montmorency tart cherry supplementation on an acute bout of intense lower body strength exercise in resistance trained males. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 13(1), 22.
Losso, J. N., Finley, J. W., Karki, N., Liu, A. G., Prudente, A., Tipton, R., & Yu, Y. (2018). Pilot study of the Tart Cherry Juice for the treatment of insomnia and investigation of mechanisms. American Journal of Therapeutics, 25(2), e194-e201.
This aspect of nutrition has produced mixed results over the years and is a question I get asked quite often. The answer is yes….to an extent.
I would point out it depends on what you are trying to achieve, if you are simply looking to lose weight (fat mass) what seems to be apparent is being in a calorie deficit, if however you are looking to maintain lean mass or build lean mass it may be slightly different.
The hypothesis is that increasing meals increases the thermic effect of food ultimately increasing total energy expenditure, however the science might tell us something different.
MEAL FREQUENCY ON FAT MASS
Research on meal frequency and fat mass presents mixed findings, with no clear consensus on whether eating more frequently leads to greater fat loss. A systematic review published in Nutrients found no significant relationship between meal frequency and body weight or fat mass when total caloric intake was controlled (Schoenfeld et al., 2015). Similarly, a meta-analysis in the Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition concluded that while some studies suggested a higher meal frequency might slightly reduce fat mass, these results were largely driven by a single study, making generalisability uncertain (Taylor & Garvey, 2014). Conversely, some evidence suggests that increased meal frequency may improve appetite control and reduce overeating, potentially aiding fat loss over time (Leidy & Campbell, 2011). However, the overall scientific consensus suggests that total energy balance—rather than the number of meals per day—is the primary driver of changes in fat mass.
Science supports this from a biological and physiological standpoint in that when energy intake exceeds energy expenditure, the surplus energy is then stored, when energy intake is less then energy expenditure, this results in loss of body mass. (Pang et al, 2014). This equation (energy balance) sits parallel with the foundations of thermodynamics, the second law, which theorises that energy is not destroyed, instead it postulates that energy transfers from one form to another. From this it is argued that the human body is an open system and that environmental, biological, and nutritional factors can influence the direction of energy expenditure and storage, when encompassing the second law of thermodynamics (Thomas et al, 2009).
MEAL FREQUENCY ON LEAN MASS
Recent research has explored the relationship between meal frequency and lean mass, yielding mixed results. A 2015 meta-analysis by Schoenfeld et al. found that increased meal frequency was associated with reductions in fat mass and body fat percentage, as well as an increase in fat-free mass. However, sensitivity analysis revealed that these positive effects were primarily driven by a single study, casting doubt on their generalisability. Similarly, a 2020 systematic review and network meta-analysis reported no significant impact of meal frequency on anthropometric outcomes, including lean mass, when total energy intake was held constant. Conversely, a 2015 study by Alencar et al. suggested that increased meal frequency might attenuate fat-free mass losses during a portion-controlled weight loss diet. Overall, these findings suggest that while meal frequency may have some influence, total protein intake and overall dietary quality are more critical factors in managing lean mass.
TAKE HOME
If you are looking to lose body fat the gold standard seems to remain as a calorie deficit, however if you ensure you have the correct NET protein intake you will preserve lean mass. In terms of lean mass maximising muscle protein synthesis and ensuring your NET protein intake is adequate seems to be more important than how many meals you eat.
REFERENCES
Canuto R, da Silva Garcez A, Kac G, de Lira PIC, Olinto MTA. Eating frequency and weight and body composition: a systematic review of observational studies. Public Health Nutrition. 2017;20(12):2079-2095. doi:10.1017/S1368980017000994.
Impact of Meal Frequency on Anthropometric Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled TrialsSchwingshackl, Lukas et al.Advances in Nutrition, Volume 11, Issue 5, 1108 – 1122.
Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA, Krieger JW. Effects of meal frequency on weight loss and body composition: a meta-analysis. Nutr Rev. 2015 Feb;73(2):69-82. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuu017. PMID: 26024494.
Blazey P, Habibi A, Hassen N, Friedman D, Khan KM, Ardern CL. The effects of eating frequency on changes in body composition and cardiometabolic health in adults: a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized trials. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2023 Nov 14;20(1):133. doi: 10.1186/s12966-023-01532-z. PMID: 37964316; PMCID: PMC10647044.
